Read Stokstad 516-553
315-750 (1300) CE Early Christian/Byzantine
(some sources say the Byzantine style survived all the way to 1450)
800-1150 Romanesque
1150-1350 Gothic
Romanesque Sculpture The Romanesque style, according to Stokstad, means "in the Roman manner." In essence, it merely refers to the fact that many of the cathedrals built in this time period had the appearance of Roman architecture.
- Tympanum: the surface enclosed by the arch and lintel of an arched doorway, frequently carved with relief sculptures.
- Archivolt: the molding fram an arch. In Romanesque and Gothic architecture, each one of a series of arches framing the tympanum of a portal.
- Lintel: a horizontal beam spanning an openings, as over a window or door, or between two posts.
- Trumeau: doorpost supporting lintel.
- Jamb: the side of a doorway or window frame. The jambs of the portals of Romanesque and Gothic churches are frequently decorated with figure sculpture.
St. Lazare, Autun Cathedral, Burgundy France West Portal, sculpted by Gislebertus c1130CE 
St. Lazare, Autun Cathedral, France West Portal, sculpted by Gislebertus c1130CE |
Form: St. Lazare Cathedral. Romanesque.
This is a large relief carving that was originally painted. The composition
is symmetrical and organized using hieratic scale. The picture plane
is also organized according to horizontal bands each filled with figures
that are pushed up against the front of the picture plane. There
is no creation of deep space in this relief sculpture.
According to the Brittanica,
Typically, the figure of Christ appears in the centre of the composition, dominant in size and usually enclosed in a mandorla (an oval, nimbus-like form). At his right and left are the four Evangelists, sometimes represented or accompanied by their animal symbols. To the sides, smaller figures of angels and demons weigh sins of the resurrected dead, who are ranked along the lowest and smallest section of the tympanum, directly above the lintel. Iconography: What makes St. Lazare an interesting example of Romanesque architecture and art is the fact that the west portal, which depicts a "sermon in stone," was originally painted. It is exceedingly well organized and stylized. This means that the figures represented in the relief sculpture are non naturalistic, this is akin to what one would see in Byzantine art. The figures relative size is based not on reality, but on their spiritual importance. Jesus, as the central figure is shown impossibly huge the figures around him are depicting judgment, heaven and hell, and good and evil. The organization of the composition is designed so that all of the other figures relate in some way to the central figure of Jesus. Figures who are to the right of Christ are literally on his good side while the figures to his left are not. Likewise there is a hierarchy according to placement in the three bands. The correlation between left and right (good and evil) does not exist in the topmost band. Anything placed in the uppermost register of the composition is "good" or heavenly. Around this interior depiction of a sermon one can see the various signs of the zodiac, which brings forth one of the main differences between the Romanesque and the Gothic style of art within a cathedral, in a Romanesque cathedral one can easily find depiction's of events and symbols that are not necessarily related to what is found in the bible. In a Gothic cathedral, by contrast, the emphasis is put mainly on biblical scenes, and scenes with Jesus in particular. Context: In Romanesque art, the emphasis to the followers was teaching. The scenes shown in almost all of the artwork found at St. Lazare are intended to teach a morality lesson, tell a story, or establish a sort of religious iconography of good and evil. For example, almost everything in this piece is representative of something else. The arch above Jesus and the scene surrounding him is representative of heaven. The sinners are always found to the left of Jesus, and the believers to the right. Everything in Romanesque art and architecture is highly organized and made to to make it easy for the followers to read the meaning and the message that the church intends. |
From first glance, one could already see the hierarchy established through the use of three separate levels as well as the scale involved in placing the relatively large sculpture of Jesus in the center enclosed in a glorifying mandorla. (The topmost level is an exception in the hierarchy since it represents the heavens; the entire band consists of "good" people. ) The symmetry of the art, to my perspective, expresses the way the world and one's fate after death revolves around how well one learns from and lives their lives according to the teachings of Jesus. The art overall exhibits no deep space and is stylized rather than naturalistic. Interestingly, the art is organized in such a way that the figures considered good and worthy of the kingdom of God are to Jesus' right and those who fail the last judgment because of sinfulness are to His left. The smaller size of the figures in the bottom-most band indicates those who await their judgment before the Lord. The sizes of the figures as well as their placement in the hierarchy are done in accordance to their religious importance. This can be scene in St. Peter, who is said to be the gatekeeper of Heaven; he is larger in size than the other believers as well as the angels. The main storyline of the scenes is centered around the battle between good and evil and triumph of one or the other during the weighing of souls after death. The consequences of being good are illustrated, for instance, by the faithful children joyfully playing with angels to Jesus' right. The rewards of goodness are also expressed by the graceful appearance of the angels, a persuasive element in the art that urges people to be righteous.According to the Brittanica,
Christianity, further developing the concept of the Last Judgment, teaches that it will occur at the Parousia (the Second Coming, or Second Advent, of Christ in glory), when all men will stand before a judging God. In early Christian art the scene is one of Christ the judge, the resurrection of the dead, the weighing of souls, the separation of the saved and the damned, and representations of paradise and hell. Romanesque artists produced a more terrible vision of the Last Judgment: Christ is shown as a stern judge, sometimes carrying a sword and surrounded by the four mystical beasts--eagle, lion, ox, and winged man--of the apocalypse; the contrast between paradise and hell is between the awesome and the ferocious. In the gentler, more humanistic art of the Gothic period, a beautiful Christ is shown as the Redeemer, his right side undraped to reveal the wound of the lance, and both wounded hands raised high in a gesture that emphasizes his sacrifice. He is surrounded by the instruments of his Passion--cross, nails, lance, and crown of thorns. The intercessors are restored, and the scene of the Judgment is treated with optimism. In the 16th century, Michelangelo produced a radically different version of the Last Judgment in his fresco in the Sistine Chapel in Rome (1533-41): a vengeful Christ, nude like a pagan god, gestures menacingly toward the damned.
The "elect" rising. According to Gardener's, the figure at the bottom far right has a bag ornamented with a cross and a shell, symbols of pilgrims who have journeyed to Jerusalem and Santiago de Compostela. |
The iconography found on select parts of the tympanum clearly show what happens to the 'good' believers. The smaller figures beneath represent the righteous and the faithful, which includes the children, seen playing with an angel. The Angels are always depicted as elegant, benevolent, beautiful, and kind. This was to give the impression that heaven was a wonderful place, and would inspire the believers into being good and faithful servants of the church. |
Peter and the elect |
Here, on the right side of Jesus is St. Peter with the faithful. Note again how he depicted as larger than the followers, and even larger than the angels. This shows his relative importance in the spiritual hierarchy. |
Pulled to judgment |
Though at first one would think this was a depiction of suffering, in truth its meant to show that after the death of this believer, the hands of an angel reach down to pull him heavenward, assuring that his soul has been save. |
The Judgment The Damned and the weighing of the souls |
On the left side of Jesus is Evil, the Devil and his minions who are participating in the weighing of the souls. In this judgment scene, one can see the Devil and the Archangel Michael both taking part in the judgment. While it appears that the Devil is trying to pull the scale downward in order to be able to claim another soul, Michael appears to be attempting to lift the soul upward, in order to claim the soul for heaven. Though it is a small vignette, it illustrate rather succinctly the struggle of good and evil in the souls of mankind. Note how in contrast to the angel Michael, the Devil is portrayed as emaciated, grotesque, and as terrifying as the stone masons could portray. This was to remind the members of the church how awful hell was, and frighten them into submission. |
Paul makes a last attempt |
Here, though it is technically the left, or 'bad' side of Jesus, We see St. Paul and the Angel make a last attempt to pull the damned souls to redemption. Hoping that through the call of the heavenly trumpet, man will be swayed to the side of God. |
Sleeping Magi |
This relief sculpture is found in the capital above the
choir in St. Lazare. It is a rather tender depiction of the sleeping Magi,
better known as the 'three wise men' and the Angel who is trying to waken
them to view the star over Bethlehem, signaling the birth of Jesus. One
of the wise men is shown with his eyes half open in sleep, just beginning
to awaken and set forth on the journey to bear their gifts of gold, frankincense,
and myrrh. The sculpture is characteristically diagrammatic and takes liberty
with proportion in order to once again show the importance of the individual
through their relative size.
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Context: A quick overview provided by Brittanica:
Giotto's Arena Chapel 1305-1306 also called Scrovegni Chapel (consecrated March 25, 1305), small chapel built in the first years of the 14th century in Padua, Italy, by Enrico Scrovegni and containing frescoes by the Florentine painter Giotto. A "Last Judgment" covers the entire west wall. The rest of the chapel is covered with frescoes in three tiers representing scenes from the lives of Saints Joachim and Anna, the life of the Virgin, the Annunciation, and the Life and Passion of Christ, concluding with the Pentecost. Below the three narrative bands is a fourth containing monochrome personifications of the virtues and vices. The frescoes were completed in or before 1309, and they are generally dated about 1305-06. There is thus no very generally agreed picture of Giotto's early development. It is some relief, therefore, to turn to the fresco cycle in the chapel in Padua known as the Arena or Scrovegni Chapel. Its name derives from the fact that it was built on the site of a Roman amphitheatre by Enrico Scrovegni, the son of a notorious usurer mentioned by Dante. The founder is shown offering a model of the church in the huge "Last Judgment," which covers the whole west wall. "Arena Chapel." Britannica 2001 Standard Edition CD-ROM. Copyright © 1994-2001 Britannica.com Inc. November 16, 2002. |
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The rest of the small, bare church is covered with frescoes in three tiers representing scenes from the lives of Joachim and Anna, the life of the Virgin, the Annunciation (on the chancel arch), and the life and Passion of Christ, concluding with Pentecost. Below these three narrative bands is a fourth containing monochrome personifications of the Virtues and Vices. The chapel was apparently founded in 1303 and consecrated on March 25, 1305. It is known that the frescoes were completed in or before 1309, and they are generally dated c. 1305-06, but even with several assistants it must have taken at least two years to complete so large a cycle. The frescoes are in relatively good condition, and all that has been said of Giotto's power to render the bare essentials of a setting with a few impressive and simple figures telling the story as dramatically and yet as economically as possible is usually based on the narrative power that is the fundamental characteristic of these frescoes. These dominating figures, simple and severe, similar to those in the Assisi cycle but placed in settings of more formal abstraction and rendered with more grandeur, are the quintessence of his style, and anatomy and perspective were used--or even invented--by him as adjuncts to his narrative gifts. He never attained to the skill that so often, in fact, misled the men of the 15th and 16th centuries. In the Padua frescoes the details are always significant, whereas it is a characteristic of the Assisi cycle that there occurs from time to time a delighted dwelling on details that are not absolutely essential to the story. |
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Form: The frescos are executed in a combination of buon
fresco and fresco secco. According to Webster's Dictionary,
fresco is "the art of painting on freshly spread moist lime plaster with
water-based pigments."
Fresco is a term that
literally means "fresh." There are two kinds, buon fresco
and fresco secco. This painting painting is made by coating
a wall with plaster and while the wall is still damp, ground up pigments
are mixed with water and lime and painted on the wall. The paint
soaks in and literally stains the wall up to a half an inch and becomes
permanent. This is called
buon fresco
(good fresh). Details with more expensive colors (such as blue made
from lapis lazuli) are added with tempera paint (egg yolks and glue)
when the fresco is dry. This is called secco
fresco (dry fresh).
This technique was first developed in Rome and you can still see some really good examples of early fresco dating from 79 CE in Pompeii. The arrangement of the frescoes in the Arena Chapel actually adds to the frescoes meanings. In order to better understand the frescoes art historians use a the same theory that literary analysts do to study the interrelationship of the stories or narratives. This kind of analysis is called a semiotic or structural analysis. By looking at this wall as a whole, and interpreting the relationship of panel image to the others, it is possible to come up with a deeper understanding of the set of frescoes as a whole. For example, the top set of images represents scenes from the life of Joachim, Mary's father. This top set of scenes acts as a kind of thematic framework in which to view the life of Jesus which is set in the central section, beneath these stories, acting almost like a foundation or the caryatids from the Acropolis are the seven virtues and vices. See the diagram below. |
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Scenes from the Life of Joachim
1. Expulsion of Joachim from the Temple 2. Joachim among the Shepherds 3. Annunciation to St. Anne 4. Joachim's Sacrificial Offering 5. Joachim's Dream 6. Meeting at the Golden Gate Scenes from the Life of the Virgin 7. The Birth of the Virgin 8. Presentation of the Virgin in the Temple 9. The Rods Brought to the Temple 10. Prayer of the Suitors 11. Marriage of the Virgin 12. The Wedding Procession 13. God Sends Gabriel to the Virgin 14. Annunciation: The Angel Gabriel Sent by God 15. Annunciation: The Virgin Receiving the Message 16. Visitation Scenes From the Life of Christ 17. Nativity: Birth of Jesus 18. Adoration of the Magi 19. Presentation at the Temple 20. Flight into Egypt 21. Massacre of the Innocents 22. Christ among the Doctors 23. Baptism of Christ 24. Marriage at Cana 25. Raising of Lazarus 26. Entry into Jerusalem 27. Expulsion of the Money-changers from the Temple 28. Judas Receiving Payment for his Betrayal 29. Last Supper 30. Washing of Feet 31. Kiss of Judas 32. Christ before Caiaphas 33. Flagellation 34. Road to Calvary 35. Crucifixion 36. Lamentation (The Mourning of Christ) 37. Resurrection (Noli me tangere) 38. Ascension 39. Pentecost |
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Virtues and Vices
Justice and Injustice Form: This is a monochromatic fresco. It resembles a marble relief sculpture. Giotto's genius is also seen in his perspective and visual depth. Light and shadow of the gown she wears resembles the type of gown a Roman woman would wear. Perhaps this is an allusion to Roman art and law. The personification of Justice (as well as Injustice) is slightly larger than the rest of the vices and virtues. Giotto uses chiaroscuro (the play of light and shadow or shading) to create realism in this work. The drapery is no longer rendered in the cartoonish or awkward manner of earlier paintings and the light source seems consistent across the entire picture plane. Iconography: The pointed domes surrounding her throne resemble the arches of a gothic cathedral. Though wearing a crown that is a symbol of royalty, this religious backdrop would indicate that she is Godly. Some people also believe that this is Mary. The procession of people at the bottom of this image shows people living prosperous lives. They are dancing, tending their animals and conversing amongst themselves. The lesson being subtly portrayed would be that if one lives a moral life, he will enjoy happiness and prosperity. Context: Literacy of the Middle Ages was very low. Only the clergy could read the scriptures. Therefore, the paintings inside the temples during this period were for didactic purposes. They were meant to tell a story. In the Arena Chapel the stories are of Jesus’ parents, His life, and then running around the bottom of the church (at eye level) are the Virtues and Vices so that all could see them. Virtues consisted of: Justice (above) prudence, fortitude, temperance, faith, charity, and hope. by Annette Abbotte |
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Form: Marble during this period was very expensive,
so to cut down on costs, Giotto painted the virtues and vices in a way
that made them look like marble. It is also a monochromatic
fresco. Though he sits quite close to the fore of the picture
plane, Giotto's use of light, shadow and perspective make this ruler appear
to be receding beneath the arches of his throne.
Iconography: The crumbling castle that serves as
a backdrop to this ruler’s throne would suggest that he is a tyrant.
He rules his kingdom with a sword. There are trees growing up in
front of him. They symbolize the idiomatic expression of one not
being able to “see the forest for the trees” – not that this is of any
value because, with his head tilted away from the viewer, it appears as
if he does not wish to see them at all. The procession of people running
along the bottom of this painting indicates these people live in a place
of unrest - perhaps a civilization in decline. We see them pillaging,
stealing and fighting amongst each other.
Context: The seven vices are personified on one side of the temple facing the virtues. The vices are: Injustice, desperation, envy, infidelity, wrath, inconstancy and foolishness. Semiotic or structural analysis: The seven vices and virtues are positioned around lowest part of the cathedral. They are intentionally at eye level so that every man who enters the temple can look at and be reminded of the constant and equal struggle of these characteristics in everyone. Justice and Injustice both occupy a central position on the dado. The inside of the Arena Chapel is a didactic text. The higher the eye rises when viewing these frescos, the loftier are the images or stories being portrayed. We can look up to see Christ's parents and his life, but then when we look at the images on the bottom – the ones nearest to ourselves, we see our own souls. The Virtues are on the right side of the chapel. The right in such paintings always represents good (“right hand of God”) or Godliness. The Vices are located along the left side. by Annette Abbotte Take a virtual tour of the Arena chapel here: http://www.mystudios.com/gallery/giotto/preamble.html |
St. Lazare, Autun Cathedral, France West Portal, sculpted by Gislebertus c1130CE |
Form: Compare
this image to Gislebertus' carving at Autun Cathedral. The composition
is symmetrical and organized using hieratic scale. The picture plane
is also organized according to horizontal bands but in this image, unlike
its Romanesque predecessor, there is overlapping and some sense of space
created. The structure of the composition is still standard according
to depictions of a "Last Judgment."
According to the Brittanica,
Typically, the figure of Christ appears in the centre of the composition, dominant in size and usually enclosed in a mandorla (an oval, nimbus-like form). At his right and left are the four Evangelists, sometimes represented or accompanied by their animal symbols. To the sides, smaller figures of angels and demons weigh sins of the resurrected dead, who are ranked along the lowest and smallest section of the tympanum, directly above the lintel. Iconography: What makes St. Lazare an interesting example of Romanesque architecture and art is the fact that the west portal, which depicts a "sermon in stone," was originally painted. It is exceedingly well organized and stylized. This means that the figures represented in the relief sculpture are non naturalistic, this is akin to what one would see in Byzantine art. The figures relative size is based not on reality, but on their spiritual importance. Jesus, as the central figure is shown impossibly huge the figures around him are depicting judgment, heaven and hell, and good and evil. The organization of the composition is designed so that all of the other figures relate in some way to the central figure of Jesus. Figures who are to the right of Christ are literally on his good side while the figures to his left are not. Likewise there is a hierarchy according to placement in the three bands. The correlation between left and right (good and evil) does not exist in the topmost band. Anything placed in the uppermost register of the composition is "good" or heavenly. According to the Brittanica, Christianity, further developing the concept of the Last Judgment, teaches that it will occur at the Parousia (the Second Coming, or Second Advent, of Christ in glory), when all men will stand before a judging God. In early Christian art the scene is one of Christ the judge, the resurrection of the dead, the weighing of souls, the separation of the saved and the damned, and representations of paradise and hell. Romanesque artists produced a more terrible vision of the Last Judgment: Christ is shown as a stern judge, sometimes carrying a sword and surrounded by the four mystical beasts--eagle, lion, ox, and winged man--of the apocalypse; the contrast between paradise and hell is between the awesome and the ferocious. In the gentler, more humanistic art of the Gothic period, a beautiful Christ is shown as the Redeemer, his right side undraped to reveal the wound of the lance, and both wounded hands raised high in a gesture that emphasizes his sacrifice. He is surrounded by the instruments of his Passion--cross, nails, lance, and crown of thorns. The intercessors are restored, and the scene of the Judgment is treated with optimism. In the 16th century, Michelangelo produced a radically different version of the Last Judgment in his fresco in the Sistine Chapel in Rome (1533-41): a vengeful Christ, nude like a pagan god, gestures menacingly toward the damned. |
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The iconography of this "Last Judgment" does change a
bit also by the inclusion of the patron of the image just to the left of
center (Christ's right.) The inclusion of a patron or donor to the
chapel actually is very significant, it tells us that there is a new class
of people on the scene and that they consider themselves important.
It also indicates some ideas concerning the sale of indulgences and usury
that are later on considered suspicious during the 1500's. See professor
Farber's page for a more complete discussion. Dr.
Farber's Lecture on the Arena Chapel
Below the cross, on the left, is the dedicatory scene, in which Enrico Scrovegni kneels before the Virgin and two saints, offering a model of the Arena Chapel upheld by an Augustinian friar. The portrait of Scrovegni, who is shown in sharp profile, is a faithful representation of the youthful features of the same man shown in old age on his marble tomb in the same chapel. His clothing and hair style reflect the fashions of the day, and provide valuable information on contemporary costume. The figure of Scrovegni is on the same scale as the sacred figures he is addressing - it was evidently enough to show him kneeling before these figures to indicate his 'inferior' status. The model of the chapel presented by Scrovegni differs in a few details from the real chapel, a fact which suggests that the Last Judgment may have been painted before the exterior of the chapel was completed. This is a strong possibility since the most pictorially advanced parts of the cycle, i.e. those most similar to Giotto's later works, appear on the wall opposite the Last Judgment, above and on each side of the chancel arch. The warm, rich coloures of the angels surrounding God, and of the figures of Gabriel and Mary are related to the fresco decorations in the Magdalen Chapel in the Lower Church at Assisi, which are the closest to the Paduan frescoes of all of Giotto's surviving cycles. http://www.kfki.hu/~arthp/tours/giotto/lastjudg.html Context: According to Professor Farber, In 1300, the wealthy Paduan merchant Enrico Scrovegni bought a piece of land on the site of a former Roman arena. Included in the palace that he built on the site was a chapel dedicated to the Virgin of the Annunciation, Santa Maria Annunziata, and the Virgin of Charity, Santa Maria del Carità . Enrico is shown in the fresco of the Last Judgment presenting a model of the chapel to the Virgin: The family wealth had been amassed by Enrico's father, Reginaldo, whom Dante singled out as the arch usurer in his Inferno. Usury, the lending of money for profit, was considered a sin during the Middle Ages. It is likely that Enrico constructed the chapel as a means to expiate the father's sin. The dedication of the Chapel to the Virgin of Charity, referred to in a document of March of 1304 in which Pope Benedict XI granted indulgences to those who visited "Santa Maria del Carità de Arena," was an obvious choice to disassociate the family from taint of greed and miserliness. |
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Form: This is a detail of the lower right hand
corner (to Christ's left) of the Last Judgment. In this section
the coloring shifts radically with its flames and lava. The figure
of the devil is placed in the center of the sub region of hell.
Iconography: The damned, who are shown in the lower right hand corner, fall into a hell dominated by the figure of Satan. This hell teems with hopeless diminutive figures being subjected to a variety of comically indecent humiliations and torments by apish devils. It is a far cry from Dante's tragic vision of hell and recalls only a few verses of the Inferno about the area of hell known as the Malebolge. Almost all these figures can be attributed to Giotto's assistants, though here, too, the guiding hand of the master can be perceived in the rich play of imagination which characterizes the whole, and in the execution of certain parts, which suggest his direct intervention. This is true of the wonderfully immediate episode that takes place on the brink of hell, below the cross, where two devils conduct a struggling man back to the damned, tugging him by his clothes, which are being pulled over his head to reveal his disproportionate genitals. (It seems these two sites copied from each other, I'm not sure which is the original source so here's links to both.) http://gallery.euroweb.hu/html/g/giotto/padova/4lastjud/lastj_d4.html http://www.kfki.hu/~arthp/tours/giotto/lastjudg.html According to Dr. Farber, In hell . . . the theme of usury is also developed in the adjacent image of Christ expelling the merchants from the Temple and the detail of usurers hanging from the their money bags in the Hell scene included in the Last Judgment: |
Fresco is a method of painting water-based pigments on freshly applied plaster, usually on wall surfaces. The colours, which are made by grinding dry-powder pigments in pure water, dry and set with the plaster to become a permanent part of the wall. Fresco painting is ideal for making murals because it lends itself to a monumental style, is durable, and has a matte surface. Buon', or "true," fresco is the most durable technique and consists of the following process. Three successive coats of specially prepared plaster, sand, and sometimes marble dust are troweled onto a wall. Each of the first two rough coats is applied and then allowed to set (dry and harden). In the meantime, the artist, who has made a full-scale cartoon (preparatory drawing) of the image that he intends to paint, transfers the outlines of the design onto the wall from a tracing made of the cartoon. The final, smooth coat (intonaco) of plaster is then troweled onto as much of the wall as can be painted in one session. The boundaries of this area are confined carefully along contour lines, so that the edges, or joints, of each successive section of fresh plastering are imperceptible. The tracing is then held against the fresh intonaco and lined up carefully with the adjacent sections of painted wall, and its pertinent contours and interior lines are traced onto the fresh plaster; this faint but accurate drawing serves as a guide for painting the image in colour.
A correctly prepared intonaco will hold its moisture for many hours. When the painter dilutes his colours with water and applies them with brushstrokes to the plaster, the colours are imbibed into the surface, and as the wall dries and sets, the pigment particles become bound or cemented along with the lime and sand particles. This gives the colours great permanence and resistance to aging, since they are an integral part of the wall surface, rather than a superimposed layer of paint on it. The medium of fresco makes great demands on a painter's technical skill, since he must work fast (while the plaster is wet) but cannot correct mistakes by overpainting; this must be done on a fresh coat of plaster or by using the secco method.
Secco ("dry") fresco is a somewhat superficial process that dispenses with the complex preparation of the wall with wet plaster. Instead, dry, finished walls are soaked with limewater and painted while wet. The colours do not penetrate into the plaster but form a surface film, like any other paint. Secco has always held an inferior position to true fresco, but it is useful for retouching the latter.
The origins of fresco painting are unknown, but it was used as early as the Minoan civilization (at Knossos on Crete) and by the ancient Romans (at Pompeii). The Italian Renaissance was the great period of fresco painting, as seen in the works of Cimabue, Giotto, Masaccio, Fra Angelico, Correggio, and many other painters from the late 13th to the mid-16th century. Michelangelo's paintings in the Sistine Chapel and Raphael's Stanza murals in the Vatican are the most famous of all frescoes. By the mid-16th century, however, the use of fresco had largely been supplanted by oil painting. The technique was briefly revived by Diego Rivera and other Mexican Muralists in the first half of the 20th century.
Paradise |
BOSCH, Hieronymus, Haywain 1500-02 Oil on panel, Monasterio de San Lorenzo, El Escorial |
Hell Oil on panel, 147 x 66 cm |
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Paradise |
Context: The subject of sin and its punishments was central to all
of Bosch's art. A famous triptych, The Haywain, contains a progression
of sin, from Eden to hell, across its panels. In the central panel sin
is represented through the metaphor of a large wagonload of hay for which
a greedy world grasps. All the while, the wagon is being pulled by demons
towards the right panel - which shows one of Bosch's earliest depictions
of hell.
Form: Interestingly enough, Bosch again is collaging together
elements from images by Giotto in his Last Judgement and Masaccio's Expulsion
as well as various elements and compositional devices one might find in
the Tympanum of Gothic and Rmanesque Churches such as those found at Autun.
In the sky we see an image of God almost as if he is in a Last Judgement scene. The composition is very similar to Giotto's Last Judgment. The arrangement and scale of the angels or possibly even some demons is in a semi- circular form as in Giotto's. Beneath, in the garden, we the arrangement of the figures in this continuous narrative scene is based on various standard compositions for each story. For example, the creation of Eve uses the same poses as Michelangelo does about ten years later in his Sistine Chapel panel. Iconography: The arraangement of this panel is hierarchical. The scene at the top, may represent creation but the weird bug like demons grouped at the bottom coupled with the angels who are higher up in the picture plane, may indicate that this is the fall of the angels which is echoed by Adam's expulsion at the very bottom. An interesting, Catholic icon is represented by God the father as he pulls Eve from Adam's rib. God is wearing the papal crown. |
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BOSCH, Hieronymus, Haywain 1500-02 Oil on panel, Monasterio de San Lorenzo, El Escorial |
Form: The composition of the center scene is fairly symmetrical.
The hay wagon that sits in the center of the image creates the bottom of
pyramidal shape that is completed by the figure who sit atop the wagon
and God in heaven who looks over the scene.
Iconography: The overall scene is one that represents our unavoidable
journey to damnation. It is a bit pessimistic.
Atop the Hay wagon, angels pray for us and demons also vie for our attention. A vessel, possibly representing the holy vessel is atop a pike, while opposite this is an owl, representing knowledge and death, sits atop another branch surrounded by blackbirds (death?). Below the wagon are scenes of chaos, murder, lust and avarice. Basically all the seven deadly sins are represented in one guise or another and even the clergy are not immune to gluttony in the lower right hand corner. |
BOSCH, Hieronymus. Garden of Earthly Delights (closed triptych) c. 1500 "Creation of the World"? Oil on panel, (86 5/8 X 76 1/4) 220 x 195 cm Museo del Prado, Madrid |
The outer panels of Bosch's The Garden of Earthly Delights betray little of the wonders which lie within. Here we see the earth as Bosch envisioned it to be on the third day of creation. Light has been separated from the darkness, the waters have been divided above and below the firmament and trees are beginning to grow across the face of the earth. Overlooking this pale and watery earth composed primarily of subtle grays and green-grays is the Creator who is pictured as sitting passively on his throne holding a book which represents the creative Word. And lest we miss the allusion to the effortlessness of the Creator's act, Bosch has added an inscription from Ps. 33.9, "For he spake and it was done; he commanded and it stood forth." http://www.artdamage.com/bosch/gardenex.htm |
 Garden of Earthly Delights (central panel of the triptych) c. 1500 Oil on panel, 220 x 195 cm Museo del Prado, Madrid |
The "Garden of Earthly Delights," representative of Bosch at his mature best, shows the earthly paradise with the creation of woman, the first temptation, and the fall. The painting's beautiful and unsettling images of sensuality and of the dreams that afflict the people who live in a pleasure-seeking world express Bosch's iconographic originality with tremendous force. The chief characteristic of this work is perhaps its dreamlike quality; multitudes of nude human figures, giant birds, and horses cavort and frolic in a delightfully implausible, otherworldly landscape, and all the elements come together to produce a perfect, harmonious whole. "Bosch, Hiëronymus." Britannica 2001 Standard Edition CD-ROM. Copyright © 1994-2001 Britannica.com Inc. December 3, 2002. Various attempts have been made to relate these fantasies to the realities of his own day. For instance, some of the sexually related visions have been related to the creed of the Adamites, a hereticel sect of the day advocating, at least in theory, sexual freedom like that in Eden. But the most promising line has been to recognize many of them as illustrations of proverbs: for instance, the pair of lovers in the glass bubble would recall the proverb 'Pleasure is as fragile as glass'. This approach also provides a link between these fantasies and Bosch's other work, such as the Cure of Folly or Haywain, and between Bosch's later work and Bruegel's in the middle of the sixteenth century: though without Bosch's satanic profusion, Bruegel also made illustrations of proverbs in this way. http://www.kfki.hu/~arthp/html/b/bosch/painting/triptyc1/delightc.html |
Left Detail Heaven/Paradise with Adam and Eve |
The subdued gray earth of The Garden of Earthly Delight's exterior panels gives way to an explosion of vibrant color within. With the felt panel we move to the final three days of creation when life burst forth on the earth with all of its abundance. Swarms of living creatures inhabit the fertile garden with many gathering near a tall, slender Fountain of Life which occupies a small island in the lake at the center of the panel. To the right of the fountain a group of animals are climbing a bank which transforms itself into a face. In the foreground, near the Tree of Knowledge we see God presenting Eve to an astounded Adam who seems amazed at this creature who has been brought forth from his rib. It is notable that here God is much more youthful that we have seen in previous representations in that Bosch sets aside his earlier convention and presents the Deity in the Person of Christ. This follows a frequent convention in Fifteenth Century Dutch literature where the marriage of Adam and Eve is performed by a Youthful Deity. |
Right Detail |
The dreamlike paradise of the center panel gives way to the nightmare of Hell in which the excitement of passion is transformed into a frenzy of suffering. Here the lushest paradise Bosch will ever produce leads to the most violent of his always violent hells. As is generally the case in Bosch's vision of Hell a burning city serves as a backdrop to the various activities carried out by Hell's citizens, but here the buildings don't merely burn, rather they explode with firey plumes blasting into the darkness as what appears to be a wave of refugees flee across a bridge toward an illuminated gate house. As is always the case in Bosch's Hells the general theme is a chaos in which normal relationships are turned upside down and everyday objects are turned into objects of torture. And, given Bosch's use of musical instruments as symbolic of lust it is not surprising that in the Hell musical instruments as objects of torment are prominently featured. From the left we see a nude figure which has been attached by devils to the neck of a lute, while another has been entangled in the strings of a harp and a third has been stuffed down the neck of a great horn. |
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The picture shows a detail of The Hell. Several huge musical instruments figure prominently in Bosch's conception of hell. They are shaped similarly to the ones used at that time, but their positioning is unrealistic (for example, a harp grows out of a lute). Their relationship to each other bears strongly fanciful elements, and they have been adapted in form. What is more, the use of these instruments is wholly fantastic. There is a human figure stretched across the strings of a harp; another writhes around the neck of a flute, intertwined with a snake; a third peers out of a drum equipped with bird-like feet, the next one plays triangle while reaching out from a hurdy-gurdy, and even the smoking trumpet displays an outstretched human arm. It is difficult to conceive that the group of damned souls would sing a hymn from the musical score fixed to the reverse of the reclining figure in front of them - although this has been proposed by some scholars. The ensemble, lead by an infernal monster, could more likely be a parody. http://www.kfki.hu/~arthp/html/b/bosch/painting/triptyc1/delights.htmlAccording to Dr. Bruce Lamott, a music historian, the depiction of the individual crucified on the harp, the image of the trumpet shoved up the rear end of one of the figures, and the ears sliced by the knives could be a reference to the ideas that were being debated by the Council of Trent. Many individuals felt that music was too sensuous and the work of the devil and that the new traditions of playing music in Church was a mistake. There are also some very Giottoesque elements in this painting. In the lower right hand of hell is an image of a pig dressed in a nun's habit which obviously is a jab at the greedy nature of the Catholic Church. It is very similar to Giotto's inclusion of the Bishop who is taking money for indulgences and pardoning people in hell. |
Michelangelo and Mannerism
| Form: Compare this image to Gislebertus' carving at Autun Cathedral. and Giotto's Arena Chapel.
The composition of Michelangelo's fresco is overall symmetrical and
organized. The picture plane is also organized according to horizontal
bands but in this image, unlike its Gothic and Romanesque predecessors,
the space is not as clearly defined into bands or frets. Although the
left to right and top to bottom hierarchy is preserved according to
depictions of a "Last Judgment" Michelangelo changes the space and
distorts the anatomy of the figures in a precursor of a style that will
come to be known as Mannerism. Italian MANIERISMO (from maniera, "manner," or "style"). Mannerism is a weird overly "stylized" style that is a subset of the Italian Renaissance style and period. Its main qualities are that it is a bit shocking in terms of the subject matter. Often, although the themes are classical they are "sexy." However, although they are a bit shocking and risqué, Mannerist artists still seem to know the basic rules and get away with staying inside the boundaries of good taste. So another quality of Mannerism is that Mannerist artists seems to know the etiquette or "manner" of good taste but they also bend the rules a bit. They tend to bend the rules also in terms of the formal qualities. Mannerist art takes many of its schemas from Michelangelo but they tend to exaggerate the qualities found in his art. The figures always seem to be perched on the edge of action. Often they are portrayed in the moment just before they rise up from a chair. They are neither seated nor are they actually moving. Often the figures' anatomies are weird, twisting and distorted. Heads are too small, figures seem to float in ambiguous space and the color and value structure are often over emphasized or exaggerated unnaturally.          Iconography: Jesus, as the central figure is shown impossibly muscular figures around him are depicting judgment, heaven and hell, and good and evil but they do it in a classical manner. The organization of the composition is designed so that all of the other figures relate in some way to the central figure of Jesus. Figures who are to the right of Christ are literally on his good side while the figures to his left are not. Likewise there is a hierarchy according to placement in the three bands. The correlation between left and right (good and evil) does not exist in the topmost band. Anything placed in the uppermost register of the composition is "good" or heavenly. According to the Brittanica, Christianity, further developing the concept of the Last Judgment, teaches that it will occur at the Parousia (the Second Coming, or Second Advent, of Christ in glory), when all men will stand before a judging God. In early Christian art the scene is one of Christ the judge, the resurrection of the dead, the weighing of souls, the separation of the saved and the damned, and representations of paradise and hell. Romanesque artists produced a more terrible vision of the Last Judgment: Christ is shown as a stern judge, sometimes carrying a sword and surrounded by the four mystical beasts--eagle, lion, ox, and winged man--of the apocalypse; the contrast between paradise and hell is between the awesome and the ferocious. In the gentler, more humanistic art of the Gothic period, a beautiful Christ is shown as the Redeemer, his right side undraped to reveal the wound of the lance, and both wounded hands raised high in a gesture that emphasizes his sacrifice. He is surrounded by the instruments of his Passion--cross, nails, lance, and crown of thorns. The intercessors are restored, and the scene of the Judgment is treated with optimism. In the 16th century, Michelangelo produced a radically different version of the Last Judgment in his fresco in the Sistine Chapel in Rome (1533-41): a vengeful Christ, nude like a pagan god, gestures menacingly toward the damned. |
| | According to the Brittanica, Typically, the figure of Christ appears in the centre of the composition, dominant in size and usually enclosed in a mandorla (an oval, nimbus-like form). At his right and left are the four Evangelists, sometimes represented or accompanied by their animal symbols. To the sides, smaller figures of angels and demons weigh sins of the resurrected dead, who are ranked along the lowest and smallest section of the tympanum, directly above the lintel. |
| In this image we see that Michelangelo is using some of the standard iconography associated with the Saints. The figure with the white beard and hair holding a massive key and a scroll is St. Peter. Beneath him and to the left, holding a knife and a human skin is St. Bartholomew who some historians believe is a self portrait. The meaning behind the portrait is a kind of "woe is me" experession of self pity on the part of Michelangelo. Who, judging by his glare at Jesus in the center, holds God responsible. |
| Michelangelo chose to depict Hell in a
mythological fashion after the poet Dante's "Divine Comedy." In the
lower right hand section of the fresco (God's left) is a depiction of
Charon the boatman who swats the damned off off the boat after they have
traveled across the river Styx. To the far right of the composition is
a mythological depiction of Satan as the evil Minos. To further
classisize this image Minos is a direct quotation from a statue, Laocoon and his sons,
c1C BCE by Hagesandros, Polydoros, and Athenadoros of Rhodes, that was
found around 1500 in Rome. In response to a fierce critic, Michelangelo
gave Minos the face of a cardinal who objected most strenuously to
Michelangelo's use of nudity throughout the Chapel. After the fresco was finished, generations of prudish restorers painted clothes on a majority of the figures. In the last 15 years many of these clothes have been cleaned off including the one over Minos's genitals and it seems that Mike got the last judgment (and word) in after all. Yikes! That's gotta hurt! |
 Laocoon and his sons, c1C BCE by Hagesandros, Polydoros, and Athenadoros of Rhodes, marble 8' tall Vatican Museum, Rome Hellenistic |  |
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